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Era III · 1877–1900

Industrial America

From Hayes to McKinley, Republicans championed the protective tariff, sound money and national development, began civil service reform, and argued among themselves over trusts, empire and the abandonment of Black voting rights.

Overview

The Gilded Age was an era of close elections and fierce partisanship. Republicans held the White House for all but eight of these years, interrupted only by Democrat Grover Cleveland’s two nonconsecutive terms, but until 1897 they seldom controlled the presidency and both houses of Congress at the same time, and after Reconstruction the “Solid South” voted overwhelmingly Democratic. The party itself was split into factions. Stalwarts led by Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York defended the patronage system, while “Half-Breeds” around James G. Blaine of Maine and reform-minded independents pressed for change. Rutherford B. Hayes challenged the New York machine by removing Chester A. Arthur as collector of the port in 1878, and during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 he sent federal troops to restore order.

The party’s economic creed rested on the protective tariff, which Republicans defended as the guardian of American industry and wages, and on “sound money” backed by gold. The assassination of James A. Garfield in 1881 by a disappointed office seeker led President Arthur to sign the Pendleton Civil Service Act in 1883, creating a merit system for part of the federal workforce. Under Benjamin Harrison, the Republican Congress of 1889–1891 passed the Sherman Antitrust Act, the McKinley Tariff, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and a broad pension law for Union veterans, and six Western states entered the Union in 1889 and 1890. Its most ambitious civil rights measure, Representative Henry Cabot Lodge’s bill for federal supervision of congressional elections, narrowly passed the House but died in the Senate—the last major nineteenth-century attempt to protect Black voting rights in the South.

The backlash was swift. Democrats won a landslide in the 1890 House elections, and Cleveland returned to the White House in 1892. After the Panic of 1893, voters swung back: Republicans gained well over 100 House seats in 1894, and in 1896 William McKinley, the author of the 1890 tariff, defeated William Jennings Bryan, who had captured the Democratic nomination with a crusade for the free coinage of silver. McKinley’s campaign, managed by the Ohio industrialist Mark Hanna, promised prosperity through protection and the gold standard, and its victory began a long period of Republican dominance outside the South. The Dingley Tariff of 1897 raised rates again, and the Gold Standard Act of 1900 made gold the sole standard for redeeming the nation’s paper currency.

McKinley also led the country into war with Spain in 1898, after the destruction of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor amid Cuba’s struggle for independence. The fighting lasted less than four months. The Treaty of Paris ceded Puerto Rico and Guam and transferred the Philippines to the United States for $20 million, and Hawaii was annexed by joint resolution. Expansion divided Republicans: Lodge and Theodore Roosevelt championed it, while Senator George F. Hoar and Speaker Thomas B. Reed opposed it, and the Philippine–American War that began in 1899 cost thousands of American and far more Filipino lives. Meanwhile the party’s commitment to Black civil rights receded. The Supreme Court struck down the public-accommodations provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in 1883 and upheld segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, over the dissents of Justice John Marshall Harlan, a Hayes appointee, as Southern states moved to disfranchise Black voters.

Timeline

  1. Federal troops withdrawn from Southern statehouses

    Hayes orders the soldiers guarding the Republican claimants in South Carolina and Louisiana back to their barracks, and Democratic governments take control of both states. The last Reconstruction governments fall.

    Historical Record

  2. Garfield nominated on the 36th ballot

    At Chicago, Stalwarts backing a third term for Ulysses S. Grant deadlock with supporters of James G. Blaine and John Sherman until the convention turns to James A. Garfield of Ohio, who had come to nominate Sherman. Chester A. Arthur, a Conkling Stalwart, is named for vice president.

    Historical Record

  3. Garfield shot by a disappointed office seeker

    Charles J. Guiteau shoots President Garfield at a Washington railroad station. Garfield dies on September 19, Arthur becomes president, and the killing turns public opinion against the spoils system.

    Historical Record

  4. Chinese Exclusion Act

    After vetoing a twenty-year ban, Arthur signs a law suspending the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years—the first federal law to bar entry to a specific ethnic group of workers. It is later extended and made permanent, and is repealed in 1943.

    Primary Source

  5. Pendleton Civil Service Act

    Arthur signs the act, sponsored by Democratic senator George H. Pendleton of Ohio, establishing a bipartisan Civil Service Commission and requiring competitive examinations for a portion of federal jobs.

    Primary Source

  6. The Civil Rights Cases

    The Supreme Court holds, 8 to 1, that the Fourteenth Amendment does not reach private discrimination and strikes down the public-accommodations sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Justice John Marshall Harlan dissents.

    Primary Source

  7. Lodge introduces the Federal Elections Bill

    Representative Henry Cabot Lodge proposes federal supervision of congressional elections to protect Black voting rights in the South. The bill narrowly passes the House but dies in the Senate in early 1891 amid a Democratic filibuster and competing Republican priorities on silver and the tariff.

    Historical Record

  8. Sherman Antitrust Act

    Passed 51 to 1 in the Senate and 242 to 0 in the House, the first federal antitrust law outlaws contracts, combinations and conspiracies in restraint of interstate trade and attempts to monopolize it.

    Primary Source

  9. McKinley Tariff

    Written by Ways and Means chairman William McKinley, the law raises duties sharply on many imports while adding reciprocity provisions and placing raw sugar on the free list. Rising prices are blamed for heavy Republican losses a month later.

    Historical Record

  10. Plessy v. Ferguson

    The Supreme Court upholds a Louisiana law requiring separate railway cars under the doctrine of “separate but equal.” Justice Harlan dissents alone, declaring that the Constitution is “color-blind.”

    Primary Source

  11. McKinley defeats Bryan

    Campaigning from his front porch in Canton, Ohio, on protection and the gold standard, McKinley wins 271 electoral votes and the first popular-vote majority for a winning presidential candidate since 1872.

    Historical Record

  12. War with Spain

    Ten weeks after the battleship Maine explodes in Havana harbor, Congress votes for war. It has already disclaimed any intention to annex Cuba, and American forces win quick victories at Manila Bay and Santiago.

    Historical Record

  13. Senate approves the Treaty of Paris

    Over the objections of anti-imperialists, including Republican senator George F. Hoar, the Senate approves the treaty ceding Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines with one vote more than the required two-thirds. Two days earlier, fighting had broken out between American forces and Filipino nationalists seeking independence.

    Historical Record

  14. Gold Standard Act

    McKinley signs the law making gold the sole standard for redeeming paper currency, settling the money question on which the 1896 election had turned.

    Primary Source

People

  • Speaker of the House, senator from Maine and secretary of state

    James G. Blaine

    Leader of the “Half-Breed” faction, Republican presidential nominee in 1884 and host of the first Pan-American Conference under Harrison.

  • Senator from New York

    Roscoe Conkling

    Leader of the Stalwarts and defender of the patronage system; resigned his seat in 1881 in a dispute with Garfield over New York appointments.

  • Senator from Ohio; secretary of the Treasury and later secretary of state

    John Sherman

    Oversaw the resumption of gold payments in 1879 and gave his name to the Antitrust and Silver Purchase Acts of 1890.

  • Representative from Maine; Speaker of the House, 1889–1891 and 1895–1899

    Thomas B. Reed

    His “Reed Rules” ended the minority’s ability to stall the House by refusing to answer quorum calls; he opposed overseas annexation.

  • Representative (1887–1893) and senator (1893–1924) from Massachusetts

    Henry Cabot Lodge

    Author of the 1890 Federal Elections Bill and a leading advocate of naval power and expansion.

  • Senator from Massachusetts, 1877–1904

    George F. Hoar

    Supported federal protection of Black voting rights and was the most prominent Republican senator to oppose annexing the Philippines.

  • Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, 1877–1911

    John Marshall Harlan

    Appointed by Hayes; a former Kentucky slaveholder whose dissents in the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) defended equal citizenship.

  • U.S. marshal, recorder of deeds and minister to Haiti

    Frederick Douglass

    Appointed to federal posts by Hayes, Garfield and Harrison, he remained a Republican while criticizing the party’s retreat from civil rights.

  • Ohio industrialist; chairman of the Republican National Committee

    Mark Hanna

    Managed and financed McKinley’s 1896 campaign on an unprecedented scale; later a senator from Ohio.

  • Representative from North Carolina, 1897–1901

    George Henry White

    The last African American to serve in Congress until 1929; in his farewell he predicted that Black Americans would return.

Documents

  • May 6, 1882

    Chinese Exclusion Act

    Held by National Archives

    Suspended the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years.

    Primary Source

  • January 16, 1883

    Pendleton Civil Service Act

    Held by National Archives

    Established the merit system for part of the federal workforce.

    Primary Source

  • October 15, 1883

    The Civil Rights Cases

    Held by Supreme Court of the United States

    Struck down the public-accommodations sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875; Justice Harlan dissented.

    Primary Source

  • July 2, 1890

    Sherman Antitrust Act

    Held by National Archives

    Primary Source

  • May 18, 1896

    Plessy v. Ferguson

    Held by National Archives

    Upheld state-mandated segregation under “separate but equal”; overruled in 1954.

    Primary Source

  • June 18, 1896

    Republican Party Platform of 1896

    Held by The American Presidency Project (transcription)

    Pledged protection and the existing gold standard against free silver.

    Official GOP Position1896 Republican Platform

  • July 7, 1898

    Joint Resolution to Provide for Annexing the Hawaiian Islands

    Held by National Archives

    The “Newlands Resolution,” adopted by majority vote of both houses rather than as a treaty.

    Primary Source

  • December 10, 1898

    Treaty of Paris (1898)

    Held by Yale Law School, Avalon Project (transcription)

    Ended the Spanish–American War and transferred Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States.

    Primary Source

Elections

YearElectionResultElectoral votes
1880Election of 1880One of the closest popular votes in American history: Garfield led by fewer than 10,000 votes out of more than nine million cast, though he won the Electoral College comfortably.James A. Garfield (R) defeats Winfield S. Hancock (D)214 of 369
1884Election of 1884Reform-minded “Mugwump” Republicans bolted Blaine over corruption charges, and Cleveland carried New York—and with it the presidency—by roughly a thousand votes.Grover Cleveland (D) defeats James G. Blaine (R)219 of 401
1888Election of 1888Campaigning on tariff protection, Harrison won the Electoral College, including Cleveland’s home state of New York, while Cleveland narrowly led the national popular vote.Benjamin Harrison (R) defeats Grover Cleveland (D)233 of 401
18901890 Midterm ElectionsVoters punished Republicans for the McKinley Tariff and the spending of the “Billion-Dollar Congress,” and candidates backed by the agrarian Farmers’ Alliance won seats in the West and South.Democrats win a landslide in the House—
1892Election of 1892Cleveland became the first president to win nonconsecutive terms, and the new People’s Party carried four Western states.Grover Cleveland (D) defeats Benjamin Harrison (R) and James B. Weaver (Populist)277 of 444
18941894 Midterm ElectionsIn the depression that followed the Panic of 1893, Republicans gained well over 100 House seats, beginning a period of Republican control of the House that lasted until 1911.Republicans win one of the largest House gains in history—
1896Election of 1896The “battle of the standards” pitted McKinley’s gold standard and tariff protection against Bryan’s free silver. McKinley swept the industrial Northeast, carried most of the Midwest and won a majority of the popular vote, reshaping the electoral map for a generation.William McKinley (R) defeats William Jennings Bryan (Democratic and Populist nominee)271 of 447
1900Election of 1900Running with Theodore Roosevelt on prosperity and victory over Spain, McKinley widened his margin as Bryan campaigned against imperialism.William McKinley (R) defeats William Jennings Bryan (D)292 of 447

Policies

  • 1883

    Civil service reform

    The Pendleton Act created a bipartisan Civil Service Commission and required competitive examinations for a portion of federal jobs; presidents of both parties steadily extended its coverage.

    Primary Source

  • 1877–1900

    The protective tariff

    Republicans defended high tariffs as protection for American manufacturing and wages and as a source of federal revenue. The McKinley Tariff of 1890 and the Dingley Tariff of 1897 raised rates sharply; Democrats countered that tariffs raised consumer prices and sheltered monopolies.

    Historical Record

  • 1896

    Protection and the gold standard

    The 1896 platform renewed the party’s “allegiance to the policy of protection” and declared it opposed to the free coinage of silver except by international agreement, pledging that until then “the existing gold standard must be maintained.”

    Official GOP Position1896 Republican Platform

  • 1890

    Sherman Antitrust Act

    The first federal law against monopoly passed almost unanimously, but its broad terms and narrow early court readings limited enforcement until the Roosevelt administration.

    Primary Source

  • 1890–1891

    Federal Elections Bill

    Would have authorized federal supervisors to oversee registration, voting and the counting of ballots in congressional elections. Opponents called it the “Force Bill”; it passed the House but never came to a final Senate vote.

    Historical Record

  • 1890

    Veterans’ pensions

    The Dependent and Disability Pension Act extended pensions to Union veterans unable to perform manual labor, whether or not their disabilities stemmed from the war, and to their widows and dependents, making pensions one of the largest items in the federal budget.

    Historical Record

  • 1883–1898

    The “New Navy”

    Beginning in 1883, Congress funded the Navy’s first steel warships, and later authorizations built the modern battleships that fought in the Spanish–American War.

    Historical Record

  • 1898–1899

    Overseas expansion

    Hawaii was annexed by joint resolution in July 1898, and the Treaty of Paris ceded Puerto Rico and Guam and transferred the Philippines for $20 million, making the United States a Pacific and Caribbean power.

    Historical Record

Speeches

  • March 5, 1877

    Inaugural Address

    Rutherford B. Hayes

    Taking office after the disputed election, Hayes pledged civil service reform and promised to protect the rights of all citizens while encouraging “honest and efficient local self-government” in the South.

    “he serves his party best who serves the country best.”
    Primary Source

  • March 4, 1881

    Inaugural Address

    James A. Garfield

    Garfield devoted a major passage of his only inaugural address to the rights of Black Americans and the duty to protect their votes.

    “The elevation of the negro race from slavery to the full rights of citizenship is the most important political change we have known since the adoption of the Constitution of 1787.”
    Primary Source

  • January 29, 1901

    Farewell to the House

    George Henry White

    Leaving Congress as disfranchisement laws spread across the South, the last Black member of the nineteenth-century House predicted that Black Americans would one day return. None served again until Oscar De Priest took his seat in 1929.

    “This, Mr. Chairman, is perhaps the negroes’ temporary farewell to the American Congress; but let me say, Phoenix-like he will rise up someday and come again.”
    Primary Source

Criticism & Debate

A historical institution earns trust by recording disagreement. It does not rewrite history around what a movement believes today. Each perspective below is stated in terms its own proponents would recognize.

Opposing View / Debate

Spoils or merit? Patronage and the Mugwump bolt

Patronage—rewarding party workers with government jobs—held Gilded Age parties together. Reformers wanted a merit system, and in 1884 some bolted the Republican ticket altogether.

Stalwarts and party regulars

Conkling and other regulars argued that parties needed disciplined organizations and loyal workers, that elected officials were entitled to fill offices with supporters, and that bolting the ticket only helped the Democrats. In 1884 regulars also maintained that the corruption charges against Blaine were unproven.

Reformers and Mugwumps

Civil service reformers such as Carl Schurz, George William Curtis and the editor E. L. Godkin argued that the spoils system bred corruption and incompetence. In 1884 many of these “Mugwumps” refused to support Blaine, whom they considered compromised by his dealings with railroad interests, and backed Cleveland.

Sources

  1. Pendleton Act (1883) · National Archives
Opposing View / Debate

Did the protective tariff serve the nation or special interests?

The tariff was the central economic issue dividing the parties for most of the era.

Protectionists

Republicans such as McKinley and Harrison argued that tariffs shielded American workers from low-wage foreign competition, allowed new industries to grow, built a self-sufficient national economy and supplied federal revenue.

Tariff reformers

Cleveland devoted his entire 1887 annual message to Congress to tariff reduction, arguing that high duties taxed consumers, piled up wasteful Treasury surpluses and sheltered trusts. Many farmers and Southern and Western voters agreed.

Historians and economists

Scholars continue to debate how much tariffs contributed to late-nineteenth-century industrial growth, which was also driven by abundant resources, immigration, railroads and a large national market.

Opposing View / Debate

Should the United States keep the Philippines?

Victory over Spain forced a decision about overseas colonies that divided Republicans as well as the country.

Expansionists

McKinley, Lodge, Roosevelt and Senator Albert J. Beveridge argued that the United States had both a duty and an interest in holding the Philippines—for naval bases and Asian trade, to keep the islands from rival powers, and, in McKinley’s phrase, for “benevolent assimilation.”

Anti-imperialists

Senator George F. Hoar, Speaker Thomas B. Reed and the Anti-Imperialist League, whose members included Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain, argued that governing a people without their consent violated the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Democrats under Bryan made the issue central in 1900.

Filipino nationalists

Emilio Aguinaldo’s movement, which had declared Philippine independence in June 1898, sought self-government rather than a change of colonial rulers. According to the State Department’s Office of the Historian, the war that followed killed more than 4,200 American and more than 20,000 Filipino combatants, and as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine and disease.

Sources

  1. The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902 · Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State
  2. William McKinley: Foreign Affairs · Miller Center, University of Virginia
Opposing View / Debate

Why did Republicans retreat from protecting Black voting rights?

Between 1877 and 1900, the party that had written the Reconstruction amendments largely stopped enforcing them in the South.

Advocates of enforcement

Republicans such as Lodge, Hoar and President Harrison backed the Federal Elections Bill, and Black Republicans including Frederick Douglass and George H. White pressed the party to honor the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Justice Harlan’s dissents insisted that the Constitution guaranteed equal citizenship.

Republicans with other priorities

Other Republicans, including Western silver senators and business-minded conservatives, gave priority to currency, tariff and commercial questions, hoped to win white Southern support, or believed federal intervention had failed. Their votes and indifference let the elections bill die in the Senate in 1891.

Historians

Historians generally regard the early 1890s as the point at which national Republicans gave up on protecting Black voting rights in the South, clearing the way for disfranchisement laws and segregation that lasted until the civil rights era.

Sources

  1. Toward a “Temporary Farewell” · U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives

Images

Archival image collections. Rights are checked item by item before anything is reproduced on this site.

Sources

  1. Origins of the Modern Senate: 1878–1920 · U.S. Senate
  2. Pendleton Act (1883) · National Archives
  3. Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) · National Archives
  4. James A. Garfield: Campaigns and Elections · Miller Center, University of Virginia
  5. Benjamin Harrison: Domestic Affairs · Miller Center, University of Virginia
  6. Toward a “Temporary Farewell” · U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
  7. The Spanish-American War, 1898 · Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State
  8. The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902 · Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State

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